How traditional management and new technologies used to prevent biological invasion with two types of mechanisms, and how society can attempt to limit the spread of these organisms effectively

    Biological invasions are when one or more species actively or passively occupy a new place and establish an ecological relationship where they have not been before (Levine 2008). With the convenience of modern transportation, people can easily travel from one country to another, and that trans-regional movement provides opportunities for biological invasion. Everyday travelers might not recognize their role in influencing the frequent occurrence of biological invasions, but it occurs through simple actions such as transporting plants' seeds, releasing their pets in non-native environments, and transmitting viruses. Scientists also play a more specific role in preventing biological invasions. Scientists must explain the science in a way that people can understand. Scientists have the responsibility to propagandize the benefits of prevention and how that could positively impact the public. By further investigating the two questions, this paper will explore traditional management and new technologies used to prevent biological invasion with two types of mechanisms, and how society can attempt to limit the spread of these organisms effectively. 

    There are two prevalent hypotheses about the mechanisms of biological invasion in ecology: equilibrium criteria and non-equilibrium criteria. For both theories, equilibrium refers to the indigenous and non-indigenous species' number, diversity, and biomass in a specific community, through competition, predation, or disease to form a healthy food chain (Hengeveld 2020). The mechanism of equilibrium represents invasive species invading the local environment through the interaction between various species. For instance, scientists determined that Japanese stiltgrass is an invasive species that grows in the United States affecting populations of American toads and wolf spiders. Stiltgrass' leaves provide a place for spiders to hide and avoid predators. In the presence of stiltgrass, the population of wolf spiders increased by 33% and American toads decreased by 65% (Taylor 2014). Local species reacted differently to the invasive stiltgrass. The food chain was changed because the Stiltgrass affected the predatory relationship between the wolf spiders and American toads. This is an example of the equilibrium criteria; these ecological relationships express how the mechanism of biological invasion directly affects the interaction between alien species and local species. The mechanism of non-equilibrium represents the biological invasion mainly triggered by the abiotic dynamic of change, such as flooding, earthquake and climate are mainly elements for changing the community structure under this criteria. As a result of global warming, southern plants are migrating northward to become alien creatures in the north (Wang et al. 2021). Both criteria could explain the mechanisms of biological invasion. The analysis and criteria in different perspectives can perfect the subject of species invasion. Scientists can lay a foundation for future research and prevention. 

    There are two primary techniques to manage biological invasions: traditional management and biocontrol. Biocontrol uses technology to alter the genomes of a specific alien species community and decrease the species’ population. Traditional management stresses the land managers' response because the faster the managers can respond, the less money and effort will be required. Kakadu National Park and Oenpelli are the two neighboring areas around the Adelaide River in Western Australia (Clout and Willams 2009; Lonsdale, Harley and Gillett 1998). Mimosa (Acacia dealbata) invaded both locations because of flooding in 1970. The flood washed mimosa seeds and other plant seeds into the Adelaide River (Lonsdale, Harley, and Gillett 1998). In 1983, the Kakadu National Park's staff discovered a stand of mimosa trees, and they intervened rapidly. The local staff eradicated all mimosa plants by spraying pesticides and establishing observation areas. Since mimosa seeds’ have a seven-year period of dormancy, the managers must observe persistently and constantly eradicate every year even invasive species on the surface of land are removed and controlled. After the Kakadu National Park quickly eliminated a stand of mimosa trees, the Kakadu National Park spent 2 dollars per hectare every year. On the other hand, Oenpelli didn't manage the invasive plants as quickly as Kakadu National Park. Oenpelli started to manage the spreading mimosa in 1990. In the beginning, Oenpelli's local staff decided to carry out large-scale spraying that cost $220 per hectare per year for 5 years to get the trees under control (Clout and Willams 2009). Therefore, the rapid response helped Kakadu National Park spend less money and was more effective than Oenpelli in managing the mimosa. Biocontrol is more than the public knows about changing the genome to limit the population of a specific alien species. In addition to traditional management methods, new technologies are essential in preventing biological invasion in the future. Genetic engineering has been a popular subject for scientists studying how to use the technology to decrease a specific species' population and defeat the disease. The diseases could also be a good clue in tracking the movement of alien species to forestall any potential impact that diseases could bring to the community. Scientists used the method of RNA-Sequencing to discover "nine highly expressing RNA virus genomes and one entomopoxvirus[-KBV, a kind of prevalent virus that highly exist in honeybees]" from Argentine Ants (Linepithema humiles). In addition, SINV1 and several viruses which appear highly in Honeybees are also discovered on Argentine ants (Viljakainen and et al. 1136). The alien virus would spread to other organisms using honeybees as vectors. Scientists suspected the alien viruses were the reason for the reduction of the local honeybee population, and the virus might already affect other organisms. Scientists tried to find the virus similar to the one in Argentine ants from other organisms that interact directly with honeybees, and used the genetic drive to edit the virus' genomes to block the spread between organisms. Although the technology is still in the experimental stage, genetic engineering is still worth researching and using for biocontrol. Therefore, biological invasion can be mediated by different techniques regardless of mechanism, just like the mimosa invasion was based on the mechanism of non-equilibrium criteria (an abiotic factor), and genetic engineering was based on the mechanism of equilibrium (the interaction between different species).

    The public does not attach great importance to biological invasion, even though many people are aware of the harm. According to Staniszewski's survey (2022), a lot of people knew about the problem of invasive species, and they could even name some popular invasive species. Still, those popular invasive species do not exist in the environment where they live. Additionally, after Staniszweski visited the interviewees' gardens and told them they contained invasive plants, 46% of people still wanted to continue to plant invasive species in their gardens (Staniszewski 2022). In short, it is necessary to popularize local knowledge of invasive species and give residents a complete understanding of the danger of regional invasive species. In addition to popularizing local knowledge of invasive species and giving residents a complete understanding of the danger of regional invasive species, the popularization of new science and technology education plays an equally crucial role in controlling biological invasion. Genetic engineering, as one of the most effective new manners used for biocontrol, needs to be accepted by the masses and invested in the local environment to improve living. For instance, scientists used the genetic drive to ensure that 100% of mosquitoes produced by the bred female mosquitoes after mating with local male mosquitoes are male mosquitoes that do not suck blood (Teem and et al. 2020 ). 85% of people don't know what genetic engineering is. 71.3% of people are against using technology in wildlife because they think it is not morally acceptable (Teem and et al. 2020). In addition to increasing the public acceptance of new technology of biological invasion and enhancing the popularization of the knowledge of local invasive species, it is essential to improve scientific awareness to prevent the public from being susceptible to fake news and dishonest politicians. Channing Cope is a senator who has a non-scientific background. He encouraged people to plant Kudzu to make the area in his jurisdiction more green in order to gain more votes. In 1979, he lied and said that Kudzu could improve the soil that could help the crop produce more production. His statement was incorrect because reducing crop tillage is the most effective way to improve the soil (Eskridge and Alderman 2010).

    In conclusion, improving the public's awareness of knowing local invasive species is necessary. Compared with learning about some well-known alien species that residents might never have the chance to see, it is more worthwhile to let residents learn about specific invasive species they may see daily. The corresponding departments must formulate a governance plan according to the invasive species spread in different biological invasion mechanisms and regions. However, no matter what measures the department takes, the cooperation of local residents is the basis of management. Suppose education and propaganda could increase the public's enthusiasm for preventing invasive species so that some people would locate the alien species and report it to the department. In that case, early detection and rapid response will save a lot of money in future management, which could be used for new research on biological invasion. Only when people see a short-term result will they be more likely to accept more long-term scientific research. 

Annotated Bibliography

Clout, M.N, and Williams, P.A  Invasive Species Management : A Handbook of Principles and Techniques. OUP Oxford, 2009. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=302374&site=eds-live&scope=site.

    The chapter of the book stresses early detection and rapid response, two essential factors in managing invasive species. Then the authors explain an example that compares two neighbors, Kakadu National Park and Oenpelli. Kakadu National Park and Oenpelli are the two neighboring areas around the Adelaide River in Western Australia. In 1983, the Kakadu National Park's staff discovered a stand of mimosa trees, and they intervened rapidly. Now, the park spends 2 dollars per hectare every year. On the other hand, Oerpelli didn't manage the invasive plants as quickly as the Kakadu National Park. The local staff decided to carry out large-scale spraying of pesticides that cost $220 per hectare per year for 5 years to get the tree species under control. Today, after the two different initial approaches, they can cost the same price as Kakadu National Park for the future management of 2 dollars per hectare every year.

Eskridge, Anna E. and Alderman, Derek H. “Alien Invaders, Plant Thugs, and the Southern Curse: Framing Kudzu as Environmental Other through Discourses of Fear.” Southeastern Geographer, vol. 50, no. 1, 2010, pp. 110–129., https://doi.org/10.1353/sgo.0.0073.

    The authors expressed how it is essential to improve scientific awareness to prevent the public from being susceptible to fake news and dishonest politicians. The author used an example of how different external factors affect peoples' attitudes toward an invasive species. Kudzu is a type of alien plant from Japan that was deliberately introduced to the United States as a low-price feed in 1876. Later, in 1917, some applied scientists touted that Kudzu could heal the health of soils, which made southern farmers and ranchers eagerly add Kudzu seeds, a harmful alien species for agriculture, into the soil in an attempt to restore health to their overfarmed cotton fields. Ironically, under the advocacy of Channich Cope and other senators, Kudzu became one of the most popular domesticated plants in the South during the period. In 1997, Congress officially designated Kudzu as a pest weed, which ended the farce led by the public voice. 

Hengeveld, R. “Mechanisms of Biological Invasions.” Journal of Biogeography, vol. 15, no. 5/6, 1988, pp. 819–28. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2845342. Accessed 4 Jun. 2022.Levine, J. M. “Biological Invasions.” Current Biology, vol. 18, no. 2, Jan. 2008, pp. R57– R60. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.11.030.

    There are two prevalent hypotheses about the mechanisms of biological invasion in ecology: equilibrium criteria and non-equilibrium criteria. For both theories, equilibrium refers to the indigenous and non-indigenous species' number, diversity, and biomass in a specific community, through competition, predation, or disease to form a healthy food chain. The mechanism of equilibrium represents invasive species invading the local environment through the interaction between various species. The mechanism of non-equilibrium represents the biological invasion mainly triggered by the abiotic dynamic of change, such as flooding, earthquake and climate are mainly elements for changing the community structure under this criteria.

Lonsdale, W. M., Harley. S.L.K, and Gillett, K. J. “Seed Bank Dynamics in Mimosa  Pigra, an Invasive Tropical Shrub.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 25, no. 3, 1988, pp. 963–76. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2403758. Accessed 28 May 2022.

    In the Upper and Lower Adelaide River of Northern Australia, after the local government spent a lot of money and time managing and controlling the spread of invasive species, the mimosa tree became one of the hidden dangers to the local environment. Mimosa hasn't local predators to limit its growth, and both flood waters and local grazing animals have spread its seeds throughout the area.

Staniszewski, Ryszard. "Invasive Alien Species Impatiens glandulifera Royle – Spread Dynamics, Environmental Impacts and Youth Perception of the Problem." Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, vol. 31, no. 2, 2022, pp. 1337-1343. doi:10.15244/pjoes/140274.

    It is a report using the spread dynamics of the species, Impatiens glanduilifera royals in Prezdecz Lake (located in central Poland). This was done to analyze the type of plants that interact with the regional ecosystem as alien spices, and to obtain a survey about local residents' attitude towards invasive species, especially the Impatiens glandulifera royals. The author found that the first time that the Impatiens glandulifera royal invaded in Prezdecz Lake was in the mid-1990s. The invasion took place between the lake and private gardens. Today the Impatiens glandulifera  royal is one of the most widely distributed invasive plants in Polish national parks. This is due to the inaction of local residents towards the alien species, which has caused the complete disappearance of a kind of riparian vegetation in this area. According to the survey about alien invasive plants, 66.6% of people know about the harm of alien species to the environment, but only 0.9% of people know the Impatiens glandulifera royals are invasive species. Although the researcher informed interviewers about the biological invasion, 46% of people continued growing alien species in their gardens. Therefore, it is important to increase local knowledge of invasive species and give local residents a full understanding of the danger of invasive species. 

Taylor, Alex. “Invasive Species Affect Animal Interactions .” Conservation Jobs, 3 Sept. 2014, https://www.conservationjobs.co.uk/articles/invasive-species-affect-animal-interactions/. 

    Scientists determined that Japanese stiltgrass was a type of invasive species in the United States. It began to affect populations of American toads and wolf spiders. Because stiltgrass leaves created a habitat where spiders could hide themselves to avoid predators, wolf spiders were positively affected by the population increase. Conversely, the toads were negatively affected by population decrease. The data showed that in the presence of stiltgrass, the population of wolf spiders increased 33% and American toads decreased 65%. This example explains how the community structure can change because invasive species can interact with other local species differently and cause the downfall of native species.

Teem, John L., Alphey, Luck., Descamps, Sarah., Edgington, Matt P., Edwards, Owain., Gemmell, Neil., Samuel, Tim Harvey., Melnick， Rachel L., Oh, Kevin P., Piaggio, Antoinette J., Saah, Royden J., Schill, Dan., Thomas, Paul., Smith, Trevor., and Robert, Andrew., . “Genetic Biocontrol for Invasive Species.” Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, vol. 8, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2020.00452. 

    The article introduces four methods of genetic biocontrol to prevent the increase of invasive species populations from the genetic perspective: sterile-release, YY males, Trojan Female Technique, and gene drive. Through those techniques, it is possible to make specific individuals infertile, change their sex, or give them a defective gene that can be passed on to the next generation. However, these technologies are too specialized, causing the public to often not fully understand the technology and not accept that scientists use those techniques in animals. 85% of people don't know what genetic engineering is. 71.3% of people are against using technology in wildlife because they think it is not morally acceptable.

Viljakainen, L. Holmberg, I. Avril, S. and Jurvansuu J. “Viruses of Invasive Argentine Ants from the European Main Supercolony: Characterization, Interactions and Evolution.” Journal of General Virology, Microbiology Society, 25 June 2018,  https://doi.org/10.1099/jgv.0.001104.

    This is a report explaining the invasion of Argentine ants. Scientists attempted to understand Argentine ants’ many viruses and the interaction of the local system from those viral genomes. The report used RNA-sequencing to find KBV is a type of virus that infects honeybees. Therefore, the virus could be a good clue in tracking the interaction of invasive species. It is also an invisible killer that can change the local ecosystem. 

Wang, A. Melton, E. A. Soltis,  E. D. and Soltis, S. P. “Potential Distributional Shifts in North America of Allelopathic Invasive Plant Species under Climate Change Models.” Plant Diversity, vol. 44, no. 1, 2022, pp. 11–19.,  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pld.2021.06.010. 

    This is a report that attempted to predict possible directions that invasive plants might take while also incorporating climate change as a factor. This was done in order to control and manage them directionally in the future. The experiment uses Species Distribution Models (SDMs) to test six allelopathic flowering plants (Ailanthus altissima, Casuarina equisetifolia, Centaurea stoebe ssp.  micranthos, Dioscorea bulbifera, Lantana camara, and Schinus terebinthifolia).  The SDMS predicted where the invasive species would grow in North America. Each of these flower species can secrete chemicals that could negatively affect the local ecosystem. Possible impacts include plant toxicity, seed suppression, and changing soil properties. According to the results of the SDMs, those plants will shift their range northward in response to the changes in temperature and precipitation.